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embodies, in trance, the protector deity Pehar.
21. Padmasambhava was a legendary eighth-century tantric yogi known
for his skill in magic. He is said to have come from the region of Swat and was
invited to the court of King Trisong Detsen to defeat the Bön magicians and
prepare the way for the establishment of the Dharma. See Snellgrove and
Richardson, Cultural History of Tibet, 78.
22. See Holmberg, Order in Paradox; Stan Royal Mumford, Himalayan
Dialogue: Tibetan Lamas and Gurung Shamans in Nepal (Madison: University of
Wisconsin Press, 1989); Sherry B. Ortner, Sherpas Through Their Rituals (Cam-
bridge: Cambridge University Press, 1978); Geoffrey Samuel, Civilized Sha-
mans: Buddhism in Tibetan Societies (Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution
Press, 1993).
23. Barbara Aziz, Reincarnation Reconsidered or the Reincarnate Lama
as Shaman, in Spirit Possession in the Nepal Himalayas, ed. John T. Hitchcock
and Rex L. Jones (Warminster, England: Aris and Phillips, 1976), 347.
24. William Stablein, Mahåkåla the Neo-Shaman Master of the Ritual,
in Spirit Possession, ed. John T. Hitchcock and Rex L. Jones (Warminster,
England: Aris and Phillips, 1976), 368.
25. God-fallen-on (lha babs) or god-seized (lha adzin).
26. Further, according to Buddhist thought, all beings have been reincar-
nated, and by that logic, everyone is possessed for life by the spirit of past lives.
27. Stablein, Mahåkåla the Neo-Shaman, 373.
28. In his research on Bön, Per Kværne notes, Both Bön-po and %0Å„hos-pa
[Buddhist] sources suggest that Buddhist siddhas, i.e. tantric adepts, and pos-
sibly also Íivaist yogins, established themselves in what is now Western
Tibet. . . . This happened prior to or at least independently of the official
introduction of Buddhism in Tibet in the form of %0Å„hos [Dharma]. Siddhas . . .
established themselves in Tibet where they, as all sources agree in stating, became
violently opposed to those Buddhist groups who enjoyed the particular favour of
the royal house and who designated their doctrine as %0Å„hos. Kværne, Aspects
of the Origin of the Buddhist Tradition in Tibet, Numen 19 (1972): 38 39.
29. For an insightful study of the influences of Buddhist lamas on
shamanic practice and vice versa, see Mumford, Himalayan Dialogue.
30. Matthew Kapstein, The Illusion of Spiritual Progress: Remarks on
Indo-Tibetan Buddhist Soteriology, in Paths to Liberation: The Mårga and Its
Transformations in Buddhist Thought, ed. Robert E. Buswell, Jr., and Robert M.
Gimello, Studies in East Asian Buddhism, no. 7 (Honolulu: University of Hawaii
Press, 1992), 199.
31. The bodhisattva path in the Mahåyåna tradition consists in develop-
ing six major påramitås (perfections): the perfections of generosity, virtue,
patience, energetic effort, meditative concentration, and wisdom.
142 Notes to Chapter 4
32. Mumford, Himalayan Dialogue, 113 14.
33. Ortner, Sherpas Through Their Rituals, 157 69.
34. Samuel, Civilized Shamans, 26.
35. The six practices are the yogas of inner heat, illusory body (which
includes dream yoga), clear light, consciousness transference, forceful projec-
tion, and the bardo (intermediate-state). See Glenn Mullin, The Six Yogas of
Naropa, 2nd ed. (Ithaca, NY: Snow Lion Publications, 2005).
36. Herbert Guenther, trans., The Life and Teaching of Nåropa (London:
Oxford University Press, 1963), 67.
37. Shangs-pa gser- phreng, khyung-po rnal- byor-pa i rnam-thar, fo-
lios 15b 17a; quoted in Kapstein, Illusion of Spiritual Progress, 196.
38. Francisco J. Varela, ed., Sleeping, Dreaming and Dying: An Exploration
of Consciousness with the Dalai Lama (Boston: Wisdom Publications, 1997), 38
39. This distinction is somewhat reminiscent of the Upani"adic discussion of
the dreaming self as either leaving the body or roaming around within it.
39. Ibid., 125.
40. Glenn Mullin, ed. and trans., Selected Works of the Dalai Lama II:
Tantric Yogas of Sister Niguma (Ithaca, NY: Snow Lion Publications, 1987), 139.
41. Ricard, et al., The Life of Shabkar, 174 75.
42. Chang, Prophecy, 13.
43. For translations of the Tibetan Book of the Dead, see Francesca Fremantle
and Chögyam Trungpa, trans., The Tibetan Book of the Dead: The Great Liberation
Through Hearing in the Bardo by Guru Rinpoché according to Karma Lingpa (Boul-
der, CO: Shambhala, 1975). Robert Thurman, The Tibetan Book of the Dead: Lib-
eration Through Understanding in the Between (New York: Bantam, 1994). See also
Fremantle, Luminous Emptiness: Understanding the Tibetan Book of the Dead (Bos-
ton: Shambhala, 2003). For a contemporary Tibetan Buddhist view of the pro-
cess of dying, see Sogyal Rinpoché, The Tibetan Book of Living and Dying, ed.
Patrick Gaffney and Andrew Harvey (San Francisco: HarperSanFrancisco, 1992).
On the relationship between the states of waking, sleeping, and dreaming and the
process of death and rebirth, see Varela, Sleeping, Dreaming and Dying, 111 30.
44. Françoise Pommeret, Returning from Hell, in Religions of Tibet in
Practice. (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1997), 503.
45. See Graham Watson and Jean-Guy Goulet, Gold In; Gold Out: The
Objectification of Dene Tha Accounts of Dreams and Visions, Journal of An-
thropological Research. 48 (1992): 224 27. This article emphasizes that among
the Dene Tha, firsthand knowledge, the only true knowledge, is obtained
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